Can you tell us a little more about the issues faced by the southern woolly lemur?
The southern woolly lemur (Avahi meridionalis) is a nocturnal species, found in the coastal forests of southeast Madagascar, and like all lemur species is endemic to the island. Unfortunately, these forests have been heavily impacted by human activity; slash and burn agriculture is common, and nearby villages continue to rely on the forests as a source of firewood and construction materials. More worryingly, an imminent mining project is set to remove the majority of remaining forest cover over the coming decades. The southern woolly lemur was recently reclassified from Data Deficient to Endangered. Little is known about their habitat needs and it is hoped that the more we learn then the more effective future conservation measures will be in protecting them.
There are three of us in the research team, and we employ guides and a cook from nearby villages who work and live with us. The forests in which we work are in rural southeast Madagascar. We camp in tents at the edge of the forest; we are usually far from the nearest town and always without the luxury of electricity and running water.
We actually use a few different base camps; the most comfortable has a long house where the team can eat and relax during time off from fieldwork and concrete wash blocks where you can take a bucket shower. The biggest perk is that it’s only 10km from town and so we can send for supplies if we run out of fresh food. Another site has wooden shelters and a solar powered research station. Here, the forest neighbour is a small village where we can buy meat, fish and fresh fruit, aside from which we eat rice three times a day, every day.
The most remote site is a three-hour bus ride, or ‘bush taxi’, from town, followed by a two hour walk to the nearest village. From there a local fishing boat, or dug-out canoe, can take the team across the river and through the mangrove swamps to the forest. This fragment doesn’t have any campsite facilities so we need to take everything with us including all the food and drinking water we need. If and when we run out of supplies it’s a two-and-a-half hour walk to a nearby fishing village where we can pick up beans, rice, fish and if we are lucky, lobster! The downside is there’s no real shelter so if it rains you get wet. If it rains for a few days, this can be pretty miserable. On the plus side, you are camping in pristine forest, bordered on one side by (supposedly) crocodile-infested swamps, and on the other by miles of untouched beach and the Indian Ocean where, between August and November, you’ll often look out and see humpback whales with their young.
The landscape is amazing. One week you might be camped in the middle of the forest watching a group of bamboo lemurs pass by as you eat breakfast, a few days later the Indian Ocean and miles of your own untouched beach might be on your doorstep, and the next week our camp site might overlook the river and mangrove swamps.
Of course, I love the wildlife too. Looking up and seeing a family of sleepy wide-eyed woolly lemurs staring back at you makes all the hard-work worth it and my heart melts every time!
The weather! The climate in southeast Madagascar is highly seasonal; the wet season is long and there is no real dry season. Essentially, it often rains! This can be frustrating when you are working outside all day every day and because we are camping there’s nowhere to dry off – there’s nothing worse than putting on wet clothes each morning! When it’s not raining it can be very hot and humid. We have to be very careful to keep equipment dry, and to look after ourselves too. In this kind of climate wounds can take longer to heal and a small mosquito bite can quickly turn into a tropical ulcer.
1) Learn the local language. Your efforts won’t go unnoticed by the community that you’re working in, even if you only have time to learn the basics. You will also get so much out of the experience if you are able to communicate with your local guides who I have found, not only know a huge amount about the forests, but are also great company!
2) Settle into the pace of the country that you’re working in. Everything might take a little longer in Madagascar and this can be frustrating, particularly if you’re working to deadlines. But, you will get there eventually!
3) Learn about the local customs and beliefs. Malagasy people have a system of beliefs and taboos, known as fady. They might dictate that you shouldn’t eat pork before swimming, that you shouldn’t eat bananas on the beach, or that you shouldn’t build your house on stilts. Fady can vary from one region to the next and so it’s important you are familiar with any local taboos to avoid causing offence.
4) Be flexible. You can be sure that things won’t always go to plan- stay positive and learn from it for next time.
5) Have fun! You might not get to shower for a few days, you will probably be covered in insect bites 90% of the time, and you might be completely exhausted, but try to enjoy every second of it!
These lemurs are definitely up against it. Their populations are decreasing in size and their habitat is under severe threat. But despite this I truly am optimistic.
The region’s huge biodiversity, incredibly high level of species endemism, and breath-taking natural beauty has attracted committed and passionate charities and researchers. Through their work we are continuing to learn more about this species, the ecosystem in which they live, and those they share it with, building knowledge and capacity for sustainable conservation efforts.
Please tell us about yourself. What do you work on currently and how did you get into conservation?
My initial training during undergraduate and Masters programs was heavily tilted towards molecular biology and Biochemistry. However, joining an amphibian lab (www.frogindia.org) for my doctoral program and choosing the Purple Frog as my topic of research ignited in me the passion for Biodiversity research and conservation. Five years of chasing the world’s most elusive frog has strengthened my resolve to work towards conservation of amphibians in India, most importantly for the Purple Frog. I have recently won a Rufford Small Grant for a project that focuses on conservation of the Indian Purple frog through threat identification, area prioritization and community education.
My study species, Indian Purple frog (Nasikabatrachus sahyadrensis), is one of the most ancient lineages of frogs having originated about 100 million years ago. The Purple frog is endemic to the Western Ghats of India and its distribution is restricted to southern part of this mountain range.
Recent studies have shed considerable light on the biology of this enigmatic species. The Purple frog is fossorial, which means it can stay underground all throughout the year and emerges out only for breeding activities. The frog has been found at depths of 5-7 meters! As of now there is not much information about their underground activities. Populations of this species are localised near seasonal streams where they complete their life cycle. Males of the species begin vocalizing at the onset of the pre-monsoon showers and male-female pairs lay eggs in cavities and depressions in the stream. Fertilization is external. Tadpoles are very unique and are found clinging onto the rocky floor of the stream. Complete development from an egg to juvenile occurs in about 90-100 days.
Nasikabatrachus sahyadrensis has often been considered as the flagship species for amphibian conservation in India, particularly in the Western Ghats. It is categorized as ‘Endangered’ in the IUCN Redlist. Of particular concern is the extensive degradation of the habitat of this species owing to large-scale anthropogenic activities. Hence, conservation of this species is an urgent priority and requires a concerted effort from all relevant stakeholders.
As part of my research, I work mostly in tribal areas in Kerala that are located within the distribution range of the Purple frog. These tribal settlement areas are located mostly on the outskirts of protected areas and are less disturbed compared to the more urbanized locations.
Most places are accessible by public and private transport like buses and jeep, but some locations require a bit of trekking. I stay with the tribal families or in forest department lodges. Most tribal homes lack basic amenities like electricity and clean water for example, so one has to be willing to survive on meagre means.
Over the last few years, I have developed very close relations with some tribal families. They lend support by assisting in my field studies and also provide me with food and accommodation. They also have good knowledge about the natural history and behaviour of species living in their area and the information provided by them is often very vital. Since the purple frog is so rare and hard to find, having a good network with locals is very important for my research, since more often than not, one has to rely on their vital information for locating and studying this species.
Being close to nature: It’s always very refreshing to be in the field. My research gives me opportunity to visit the most pristine places and this, I feel, is the best part of my research.
Unravelling nature’s mystery: Understanding the biology of an enigmatic species like Purple frog is both challenging and satisfying. Although it requires the utmost patience, the sense of satisfaction on achieving my objective is extremely overwhelming. The more I get to understand about this rare species, the more I am in awe of nature, its myriad of creations and their intricacies.
Getting to meet new people and knowing about various cultures: Field research gives me the opportunity to meet new people from diverse backgrounds and cultures. Interacting with these people is always an enriching experience.
Educating people about biodiversity and conservation: The most satisfying aspect of my work is about creating awareness and educating people about conservation and then to see the positive result of that effort. I firmly believe that the common public is the most important stakeholder for the success of any conservation program. Hence, educating them should be a top priority of conservation researchers whenever and wherever possible.
Getting Forest Permissions: Forest department officials are hard nuts to crack and it is quite difficult to convince them and obtain permissions for field research, more so for early career scientists!
Small window of activity of the frog: As mentioned earlier, this species becomes terrestrially active only for a very short duration of about two weeks per year. Hence all the research plans need to be executed within this short time frame. Once the breeding period is over, it is not possible to locate the frog from above the ground and one has to wait until the next year!
Torrential rains and night ventures on difficult terrain: The species is mainly localised around montane seasonal streams. Once the monsoon begins, the stream rocks become extremely slippery and one has to be very careful while surveying the stream, especially during night surveys. Torrential rains, which are common to this region, also hamper the surveys and at times, can be damaging to the scientific equipment that I carry.
1) Be passionate about nature and conservation: Field-work is hard and if you are not passionate, it might become all the more painful.
2) Make a very good rapport with locals, especially tribal people: If you are working on a rare species, then it is extremely important to develop a good rapport with locals and also develop a good network. It is also important to utilise the anecdotal information that you receive from the locals, as more often than not, they have quite a decent knowledge about various cohabiting species.
3) Every minute detail should be properly recorded on a daily basis: Never ignore any information or data that you obtain, whether experimentally, serendipitously or from interaction with locals. It may not seem useful at that point of time, but might end up being very crucial later on. Maintaining discipline in recording data also is extremely vital.
4) Be extremely patient: Field studies, especially about behavioural aspects, tend to be extremely time consuming, more so in case of rare species. One needs to have loads of patience. If you are determined and persistent, things will fall into place sooner or later.
5) Utilise the available time and opportunity maximally and efficiently: While working in the field, the actual time of interaction with the animal is minimal. So it is important to have a very clear idea of the objectives and the experimental procedures/techniques that need to be implemented. An ability to think on your feet can be very handy as one should be ready to quickly improvise if a particular protocol or technique is not working.
Humans first colonised Hawaii in the 13th Century, and since then an astounding 71 native Hawaiian bird species have become extinct. Today, 30 of the 48 remaining species are listed as endangered.
Some of the greatest losses have occurred within the endemic forest bird group; Hawaiian Honeycreepers (Drepaninidae), who are famous for their remarkable adaptive radiation. In the past, forest bird population declines have resulted from drivers such as habitat loss, introduced predators and introduced diseases. In the present, the greatest threat to the remaining birds is introduced diseases, primarily the vector-borne avian malaria (caused by Plasmodium relictum) and avian pox (who disease causing agent is Avipoxivirus).
Where did a disease such as avian malaria come from?
The vector-borne avian diseases were likely introduced to Hawaii with arrival of the first domestic birds. However, it wasn’t until the 1820s, that Europeans brought the vector of avian malaria (and probably avian pox), the Southern House Mosquito (Culex quinquefasciatus). Since the Hawaiian forest birds evolved in isolation, they are vulnerable to continental diseases and their vectors.
What has been the effect on native Hawaiian bird populations of these diseases?
By the 1880s, the first of two large population declines occurred within forest bird communities. The most hard hit areas were the low elevation forests. This is because the weather is warm year-round, providing a suitable climate for mosquito populations to persist. Today, the low-elevation forests are almost empty of native birds, filled only with the songs of many introduced and invasive bird species. Honeycreepers are found in mid-elevation forests, but often suffer negative demographic changes during summer disease outbreaks. Honeycreeper density and diversity increases at higher elevation, and these much colder forests act as refuges to many of the remaining Hawaiian forest birds.
However, recently two Honeycreeper species have been making a come-back in the lowland forests – The Apapane (Himatione sanguinea) and the Hawaii Amakihi (Hemignathus virens). The fantastic news of their recovery has sparked great new interest in the low-elevation habitats, once seen as a lost cause.
I’m interested in how mosquito larval habitat is created in this part of Hawaii, as this can provide information of how to reduce its availability to breeding mosquitoes.
For my research, I spent three months collecting data from low elevation wet forest fragments, located on the east side of The Big Island of Hawaii. My data contributes towards a larger study (being carried out by a PhD student, Katherine McClure), in which avian disease transmission is quantified at the avian host community level. In practice, this involved quantifying the availability of larval habitat, potentially providing a fundamental link in understanding this complex disease system.
Katherine and I determined that larval habitat in east Hawaii Island can, overall, be created by three different causes: naturally created, created by the activities of introduced feral pigs, or created by the activities of humans. To quantify this, I conducted a larval habitat survey to provide information in terms of ‘litres per hectare’ or ‘number of cavities per hectare’. Alongside this, I conducted a pig activity survey, and investigated human land-use close to the study sites. I can then use this data to inform statistical models of the relative influence of pigs and humans on larval habitat.
My findings suggest that mosquitoes are unlimited in their availability of suitable larval habitat. I also found that pig, human and natural contributions do not differ significantly in terms of availability, although there is a small positive effect of pig activity on the density (num/hectare) of larval habitats. However, the data and observations indicate that, the potentially more suitable human-caused larval habitats, may be the important driver of overall availability at low-elevations. When considering this, we see that there’s a need for improved education for the communities in Hawaii, to control mosquito numbers by reducing larval habitat availability.
One of the most famous birds lost since the arrival of Europeans is the O`o, of which there were four species: The O`ahu O`o (Moho apicalis) last seen in 1837, Bishop’s O`o (Moho bishopi) last seen on Moloka`i in 1904, Hawai`i O`o (Moho nobilis) last seen around 1934, and Kaua`i O`o (Moho braccatus) last seen in 1987. These birds were so named O`o for their recognizable call, which differed for each species but had a distinctive “oh-oh” sound. Other extinct honeycreepers include the Nukupu`u species (Hemignathus lucidus spp.), the O`u (Psittirostra psittacea), and the Kona Grossbeak (Chloridops kona), which all demonstrate the tragic loss of species with highly adapted beak sizes and shapes.
Have there been any attempts at captive breeding or conservation success stories?
Another lost Hawaiian forest bird is the Hawaiian crow or `Alalā (Corvus hawaiiensis), which is currently extinct in the wild, with a small population remaining in captivity. Other Hawaiian crow species used to exist, however this remaining species (endemic to The Big Island) is the last hope for Hawaiian Corvids. Habitat destruction and avian malaria are the main causes for the `Alalā’s demise. In 1993, an attempt was made to reintroduce `Alalā into their former habitat, unfortunately this was unsuccessful and 21 of the 27 birds released died or disappeared.
Big lessons were learned from this attempt, and the `Alalā reintroduction goal is now a more science-based, long term solution. However, it is feared that `Alalā reintroduction cannot be successful whilst mosquitoes and avian malaria are still rife throughout their intended range.
How does your fieldwork go down with the local people and tourists?
Local pig hunters operate in these forests. Due to ongoing cultural misunderstandings and conflicts of interest, some conservationists and hunters in Hawaii often do not see eye-to-eye. Therefore, we would often find our equipment had been tampered with overnight, or that our flagging tape had been relocated in an attempt to make us get lost on our trails.
Our research group made a conscious effort to become familiar with the interests and motives of the local hunters and the Hawaiian culture in general. We did this so that we could diffuse any bad feelings towards us when given the opportunity. Many hunters I have met in Hawaii have been very nice people, who ultimately want the same goal as conservationists – to restore the Hawaiian landscape to its natural state (as much as can done) and preserve the species remaining within these habitats.
There are many hidden gems all over Hawai`i – well guarded by locals to keep the masses of tourists away. Making friends, showing respect for the aina (the land) and being humble often gets you a long way in Hawai`i, and can reward you with gifts such as tip-offs or even guided visits to secret beaches, or beautiful valleys.
The biggest challenge is the mosquitoes, who come in large numbers and are hungry! Since my study set out to find mosquitoes and their breeding areas, getting bitten (or eaten alive as I often described it) was just part of the job.
Respect and knowledge for nature is fundamental to the Hawaiian culture. The ancient peoples of Hawai`i had an in-depth understanding of the world around them and established remarkable ways of living sustainably on these small pieces of land protruding from the middle of the Pacific ocean.
Many of these traditions have become gradually lost since the first arrival of Europeans in 1778. However, the current Hawaiian cultural revival is encouraging a brilliant level of environmental awareness among many people, whether they be of Hawaiian descent or not.
To live with the aloha spirit means that you try to show love and respect to all. Hawaiians believe that they directly descend from the land and the other creatures they share it with (aina). Therefore, in Hawaiian culture, disrespecting the natural world and disrespecting your ancestors (kupuna) are one and the same.
